Ceramic-reinforced dental 3D printing resins peer reviewed research
Water-removable sacrificial photopolymers, used as 3D-printed molds and cores in peer-reviewed research.
Print the mold, not the part: cast or over-mould, then release the printed form with water.
3Dresyns water-soluble sacrificial (WS) resins are a family of photopolymers for SLA, DLP and LCD printing, designed to be printed as sacrificial molds, cores and mandrels and then removed by water-based release.
Beyond their datasheets, research groups have used them in peer-reviewed journals: to cast patient-specific silicone phantoms, build multi-material microfluidic chips and produce lost-core micro-injection-moulded parts. A further study used the related inkjet water-swellable support IJ WSS1-H as a removable mold for double-sided optics.
This page summarises what those studies reported, links to the original publications, and lists the official datasheet values. Study results are attributed to their authors and are not first-party performance claims by 3Dresyns. These materials are professional manufacturing materials, not finished products.
The water-soluble sacrificial family spans five water-release routes by temperature and toughness. Two of them, IM-HT-WS and IM-HDT-WS, appear by name in four of the five peer-reviewed studies summarised below. The fifth study uses IJ WSS1-H, an inkjet water-swellable support from a different product family, included here because it follows the same print-and-remove sacrificial logic. The datasheet values further down describe the neat resins; study results describe the specific prints and protocols used by each research group.
What peer-reviewed research reported
Cerebral artery phantoms cast in PDMS from a water-soluble mold
A 2022 study published in Scientific Reports (Nature Portfolio), by Nilsson, Andersson et al. (Umeå University), used IM-HT-WS as a 3D-printed sacrificial mold to cast a full-scale (10×6×4 cm) patient-specific cerebral arterial phantom in transparent silicone (PDMS). The mold was printed on a sub-$200 desktop SLA/MSLA printer (405 nm, 50 µm layers), washed and post-cured with 3Dresyns Cleaning Fluid WS1 and Cleaning Fluid WS2 Bio, then dissolved in water after casting.
The authors reported about 4.4 ml of resin per mold at a cost under $2, a fabrication cost of $14–$70 per phantom, under 2 h of total labour, an internal volume within 13% of the original CTA model, and a mean equivalent radius of 0.997 ± 0.061 mm on 1 mm test channels. 3Dresyns (Resyner Technologies S.L.) is formally acknowledged in the publication.
Water-soluble resin in multi-material microfluidic chips
A 2023 study in Lab on a Chip (Quero, de Jesus & Fracassi da Silva, State University of Campinas) developed a multi-material digital-light-processing printer based on a vat-inclination system with embedded peristaltic pumps. IM-HT-WS was used as the water-soluble component, printed alongside flexible, rigid, fluorescent, phosphorescent and conductive resins to build complex multi-material objects and functional microfluidic devices.
The platform produced microchannels as narrow as 43 µm and a microfluidic chip with embedded electrodes for electrochemical detection. IM-HT-WS is named in the paper as the water-soluble resin used in the multi-material demonstrations.
Soluble cores for micro-injection-moulded hollow parts
A 2024 study in Progress in Additive Manufacturing (Farrugia, Vella & Rochman, University of Malta) tested soluble lost-cores for the micro-injection moulding of polymer parts with internal hollow features. Three soluble core materials were compared (two FFF filaments, Xioneer VXL130 and AquaSys180, and one DLP resin, IM-HDT-WS, printed on an Asiga Max X27), then over-moulded with PMMA.
The DLP-printed IM-HDT-WS cores gave good dimensional accuracy. The authors ranked the FFF Xioneer VXL130 as the best overall candidate core and noted that the IM-HDT-WS post-cure was not fully optimised in their setup, measuring a glass-transition temperature about 10.5% below the datasheet value. The work is reported as an early feasibility study of the 3D-printing-plus-micro-injection-moulding process chain.
The results above are the study authors' own, for their specific prints and protocols. IM-HDT-WS was evaluated as the resin/DLP core option among three soluble materials; the best-performing core in this particular study was an FFF filament.
Patient-specific flow phantoms for MRI and Doppler ultrasound
A 2024 study in Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology (Soloukey et al., Erasmus MC Rotterdam) used IM-HDT-WS (a cyan-blue water-soluble resin, printed on an Envisiontec Vida HD) as the sacrificial form to create wall-less, patient-specific lumens inside a tissue-mimicking material.
They produced three phantoms: a slanted pipe, a Y-shaped bifurcating vessel and an arteriovenous malformation (AVM) derived from clinical brain angiography (DSA) data, and demonstrated 3D power-Doppler flow imaging together with MRI compatibility.
Inkjet water-swellable support for double-sided centimeter-scale optics
A 2024 study in Optics Express (Pekkarinen, Karvinen & Saarinen, University of Eastern Finland) printed double-sided centimeter-scale optical elements on a dual-printhead inkjet additive-manufacturing system. This study extends the sacrificial-removal principle of the SLA, DLP and LCD water-soluble molds above to an inkjet water-swellable support: IJ WSS1-H (water-swellable inkjet support, hard grade) was printed in a separate printhead from the optical material LUX-Opticlear, with the support sliced at 13 µm and LUX-Opticlear at 9 µm. In the support method the printed IJ WSS1-H also acts as a mold that defines one optical surface of the lens, and is removed after printing by dissolution in dilute (1%) aqueous sodium hydroxide, so it does not remain in the finished optic.
The authors reported a double-sided lens (Thorlabs LE1104 geometry, f = 150 mm, 25.4 mm diameter) printed without post-processing, with a molded-surface roughness of Rq = 11.48 ± 3.32 nm, form accuracy within ±10 µm, a modulation transfer function of 57 lp/mm at 12 mm, and total light transmission of about 91% (internal transmission about 99.5%).
The cited study uses 3Dresyn IJ WSS1-H as an inkjet water-swellable support material, printed in a separate printhead and removed after printing, and in the support method it also acts as a mold that defines one optical surface of the lens. The optical surface quality, form accuracy and imaging performance reported are properties of the LUX-Opticlear optical material and the inkjet AM process, not of IJ WSS1-H, which is a removable support not present in the final optic. These are research findings published by the authors, not first-party performance claims by 3Dresyns.
Evidence at a glance
What each study used and reported
| Application | 3Dresyns resin | Key reported result | Journal | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Patient-specific cerebral phantom (PDMS cast) | IM-HT-WS | Full-scale 10×6×4 cm phantom; internal volume within 13% of the CTA model; ~$2 of resin and $14–$70 total per phantom; under 2 h of labour | Scientific Reports (Nature Portfolio) | 2022 |
| Multi-material microfluidics | IM-HT-WS | Water-soluble component in multi-material DLP chips; microchannels as narrow as 43 µm; chip with embedded electrodes for electrochemical detection | Lab on a Chip (RSC) | 2023 |
| Lost-core micro-injection moulding | IM-HDT-WS | DLP-printed soluble cores over-moulded with PMMA, with good dimensional accuracy (best overall candidate in the study was an FFF filament; measured Tg ~10.5% below datasheet) | Progress in Additive Manufacturing (Springer) | 2024 |
| Vascular flow phantoms (MRI / Doppler) | IM-HDT-WS | Wall-less patient-specific lumens (slanted pipe, Y-bifurcation, brain AVM); 3D power-Doppler imaging and MRI compatibility | Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology (Elsevier) | 2024 |
| Double-sided centimeter-scale optics (inkjet support method) | IJ WSS1-H (inkjet support) | Removable inkjet water-swellable support that also acted as the mold defining one optical surface, then removed after printing. The reported lens performance (surface roughness, form, MTF, transmission) is a property of the optical material and process, not of IJ WSS1-H | Optics Express (Optica) | 2024 |
Mobile: scroll horizontally to view all columns; the first column stays visible. Results are reported by the study authors for their specific prints and protocols, not first-party performance claims, and depend on printer, parameters and water-release workflow.
Engineering insight
Print the mold, not the part
Across these studies the resin is not part of the final object: it is printed as a sacrificial mold, core or mandrel and then removed with water. This indirect-AM route reaches geometries that direct printing cannot: wall-less lumens, enclosed channels and internal cavities that would otherwise be impossible to demould.
The trade-off is process. Water-release depends on printer light power, resin colour, cure depth, wall thickness and water chemistry, so a route that dissolves cleanly in one setup may swell in another. Lower-power printers and darker colours generally improve both resolution and solubility behaviour in this family.
Water-release is a property of the complete print-and-process workflow, not of the liquid resin alone. Start with water; alkaline water generally accelerates removal.
Choose your water-soluble sacrificial route
Five water-removable routes
The family is organised by mechanical and thermal profile under the same water-removal logic. As a practical rule, the release mechanism progressively shifts from dissolution-dominated behaviour in the harder routes toward swelling-assisted release in the softer routes.
| Resin (route) | Core profile | Water-removal behaviour | Typical positioning |
|---|---|---|---|
|
IM-HDT-WS very high temperature |
High deflection temperature (Shore D85, HDT < 190 °C) | Highest water-solubility tendency in the family | Very high-temperature sacrificial injection molds and thermally demanding removable structures |
|
IM-UHR-WS ultra rigid |
Ultra rigid, high temperature | High solubility tendency with strong structural support | Rigid sacrificial molds, mandrels and enclosed high-support geometries |
|
IM-UHT-WS ultra tough |
Ultra tough, medium temperature | Intermediate solubility tendency | Complex internal channels, undercuts and medium-temperature workflows |
|
IM-HT-WS hard & tough |
Hard & tough, low/medium temperature (Shore D80, HDT < 100 °C) | Lower solubility tendency than HDT / UHR / UHT | General sacrificial molds and removable enclosed features (used in the Nature 2022 and Lab on a Chip 2023 studies) |
|
IM-SF-WS soft / water-swellable |
Soft / flexible | Lowest true solubility; tends to swell rather than fully dissolve | Very soft sacrificial molds and compliant removable structures |
Mobile: scroll horizontally to view all columns; the first column stays visible. Water-solubility cannot be guaranteed as an unconditional outcome: depending on exposure, part thickness and chemistry a part may partially swell instead of dissolving. Each route has its own datasheet; follow the product link for full specifications. All five routes are €300 / 1000 g. IJ WSS1-H is a separate inkjet support product and is not part of this five-route table.
Official technical specifications (TDS-verified)
Manufacturer specifications
Values are indicative, measured on printed and post-processed specimens, and vary with printer, parameters, build orientation and post-curing.
| Property | Typical reference value | Method |
|---|---|---|
| Shore hardness | D80 | ISO 868 |
| Heat deflection temperature | < 100 °C @ 0.45 MPa | ISO 75 |
| Tensile & flexural strength | < 40 MPa | ISO 527 / ISO 178 |
| Young's modulus | > 2000 MPa | ISO 527 |
| Elongation at break | < 4 % | ISO 527 |
| Viscosity | < 100 mPa·s @ 23 °C | ISO 3219 |
Fast water solubility; very low shrinkage; metal- and organo-tin-free formulation; SLA / DLP / LCD; cleaned and post-cured with Cleaning Fluid WS1 Bio. €300 / 1000 g.
| Property | Typical reference value | Method |
|---|---|---|
| Shore hardness | D85 | ISO 868 |
| Heat deflection temperature | < 190 °C @ 0.45 MPa | ISO 75 |
| Positioning | Water-soluble sacrificial molds for very high injection temperature/pressure materials: plastics, ceramics (CIM) and metals (MIM) | |
For full specifications of each route, open the product datasheet from the route table above. Each WS route has its own TDS.
Frequently cited applications
Where they are used
- Water-soluble sacrificial molds, cores and mandrels
- Patient-specific silicone (PDMS) flow phantoms
- Multi-material microfluidic devices
- Lost-core micro-injection moulding
- Inkjet removable support and mold for double-sided optics (IJ WSS1-H)
- Enclosed cavities, internal channels and undercuts
- Indirect additive manufacturing for casting and molding workflows
Related 3Dresyns materials & resources
Pick the route that matches your geometry and process temperature
All five water-release routes, the related inkjet water-swellable support, plus the broader sacrificial and indirect-manufacturing resources.
Frequently asked questions
Are these biocompatible or finished medical devices?
No. They are supplied as professional manufacturing materials and are not marketed as finished products. In the cited studies the resin is sacrificial: printed as a mold or core and removed with water before the final part is used, so it does not remain in the finished object.
How is the printed water-soluble resin removed?
With water; alkaline water generally accelerates removal, and higher alkalinity usually means faster dissolution. Depending on printer light power, colour, cure depth, wall thickness and geometry, a part may partially swell instead of fully dissolving, so the release workflow should be validated for each part.
Which water-soluble sacrificial route should I choose?
By temperature and toughness: IM-HDT-WS (very high temperature), IM-UHR-WS (ultra rigid, high temperature), IM-UHT-WS (ultra tough, medium temperature), IM-HT-WS (hard & tough, low/medium temperature) and IM-SF-WS (soft, water-swellable). The release mechanism shifts from dissolution-dominated behaviour in the harder routes toward swelling-assisted release in the softer routes.
Is IJ WSS1-H one of the water-soluble sacrificial routes?
No. IJ WSS1-H is an inkjet water-swellable support material from a different product family. In the Optics Express 2024 study it was used as a removable support that also acted as a mold defining one optical surface, then removed after printing. The reported optical performance is a property of the optical material and the inkjet process, not of IJ WSS1-H.
Have they been used in peer-reviewed research?
Yes. Five peer-reviewed studies currently identified by 3Dresyns name these materials directly: IM-HT-WS in a Scientific Reports (Nature Portfolio) 2022 cerebral-phantom study and a Lab on a Chip 2023 multi-material microfluidics study; IM-HDT-WS in a Progress in Additive Manufacturing 2024 lost-core injection-moulding study and an Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology 2024 vascular-phantom study; and the inkjet water-swellable support IJ WSS1-H in an Optics Express 2024 double-sided-optics study. More references are listed in the Press & Publications hub.
Choose your water-soluble sacrificial route
Five water-removable routes from very-high-temperature rigid molds to soft water-swellable forms, for SLA, DLP and LCD printing, supplied in 1000 g units at €300. Used for indirect additive manufacturing, casting, overmolding and sacrificial tooling. For inkjet workflows, the separate IJ WSS1-H water-swellable support is also available.
These materials are supplied as professional manufacturing materials and are not marketed as finished products. Water-release behaviour (dissolution or swelling) and final-part validation remain the responsibility of the user, depending on printer, mold design and processing workflow.
Related 3Dresyns research
Explore more peer-reviewed material evidence
Browse related 3Dresyns research pages whose source documents identify the materials used in their Methods or Materials sections. Explore peer-reviewed research whose Methods identify the 3Dresyns materials used.
3Dresyns materials named in patent applications
This separate page documents 3Dresyns materials named in third-party patent applications. Patent citations are not endorsements, granted patents or performance claims.